求~“新古典主义”~美术方面的 英文介绍 急用 2天内~
NEOCLASSICISM
Neoclassicism was a widespread and influential movement in painting and
the other visual arts that began in the 1760s, reached its height in the
1780s and '90s, and lasted until the 1840s and '50s. In painting it
generally took the form of an emphasis on austere linear design in the
depiction of classical themes and subject matter, using archaeologically
correct settings and costumes.
Neoclassicism arose partly as a reaction against the sensuous and
frivolously decorative Rococo style that had dominated European art
from the 1720s on. But an even more profound stimulus was the new and
more scientific interest in classical antiquity that arose in the 18th century.
Neoclassicism was given great impetus by new archaeological
discoveries, particularly the exploration and excavation of the buried
Roman cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii (the excavations of which
began in 1738 and 1748, respectively). And from the second decade of
the 18th century on, a number of influential publications by Bernard de
Montfaucon, Giovanni Battista Piranesi, the Comte de Caylus, and
Robert Wood provided engraved views of Roman monuments and other
antiquities and further quickened interest in the classical past. The new
understanding distilled from these discoveries and publications in turn
enabled European scholars for the first time to discern separate and
distinct chronological periods in Greco-Roman art, and this new sense of
a plurality of ancient styles replaced the older, unqualified veneration of
Roman art and encouraged a dawning interest in purely Greek antiquities.
The German scholar Johann Joachim Winckelmann's writings and
sophisticated theorizings were especially influential in this regard.
Winckelmann saw in Greek sculpture "a noble simplicity and quiet
grandeur" and called for artists to imitate Greek art. He claimed that in
doing so such artists would obtain idealized depictions of natural forms
that had been stripped of all transitory and individualistic aspects, and
their images would thus attain a universal and archetypal significance.
Neoclassicism as manifested in painting was initially not stylistically
distinct from the French Rococo and other styles that had preceded it.
This was partly because, whereas it was possible for architecture and
sculpture to be modeled on prototypes in these media that had actually
survived from classical antiquity, those few classical paintings that had
survived were minor or merely ornamental works–until, that is, the
discoveries made at Herculaneum and Pompeii. The earliest Neoclassical
painters were Joseph-Marie Vien, Anton Raphael Mengs, Pompeo
Batoni, Angelica Kauffmann, and Gavin Hamilton; these artists were
active during the 1750s, '60s, and '70s. Each of these painters, though
they may have used poses and figural arrangements from ancient
sculptures and vase paintings, was strongly influenced by preceding
stylistic trends. An important early Neoclassical work such as Mengs's
"Parnassus" (1761; Villa Albani, Rome) owes much of its inspiration to
17th-century classicism and to Raphael for both the poses of its figures
and its general composition. Many of the early paintings of the
Neoclassical artist Benjamin West derive their compositions from works
by Nicolas Poussin, and Kauffmann's sentimental subjects dressed in
antique garb are basically Rococo in their softened, decorative prettiness.
Mengs's close association with Winckelmann led to his being influenced
by the ideal beauty that the latter so ardently expounded, but the church
and palace ceilings decorated by Mengs owe more to existing Italian
Baroque traditions than to anything Greek or Roman.
"Oath of the Horatii," oil
painting by
Jacques-Louis David,
1784; in the Louvre, Paris
/Art Resource, NY
"The Death of Marat,"
oil painting by
Jacques-Louis David,
1793; in the Musées
Royaux des. . .
/Art Resource, NY
A more rigorously Neoclassical painting style arose in France in the
1780s under the leadership of Jacques-Louis David. He and his
contemporary Jean-François-Pierre Peyron were interested in narrative
painting rather than the ideal grace that fascinated Mengs. Just before and
during the French Revolution, these and other painters adopted stirring
moral subject matter from Roman history and celebrated the values of
simplicity, austerity, heroism, and stoic virtue that were traditionally
associated with the Roman Republic, thus drawing parallels between that
time and the contemporary struggle for liberty in France. David's history
paintings of the "Oath of the Horatii" (1784; Louvre, Paris [see
photograph]) and "Lictors Bringing to Brutus the Bodies of His Sons"
(1789; Louvre) display a gravity and decorum deriving from classical
tragedy, a certain rhetorical quality of gesture, and patterns of drapery
influenced by ancient sculpture. To some extent these elements were
anticipated by British and American artists such as Hamilton and West,
but in David's works the dramatic confrontations of the figures are
starker and in clearer profile on the same plane, the setting is more
monumental, and the diagonal compositional movements, large groupings
of figures, and turbulent draperies of the Baroque have been almost
entirely repudiated (see photograph). This style was ruthlessly austere
and uncompromising, and it is not surprising that it came to be associated
with the French Revolution (in which David actively participated).
Neoclassicism as generally manifested in European painting by the 1790s
emphasized the qualities of outline and linear design over those of colour,
atmosphere, and effects of light. Widely disseminated engravings of
classical sculptures and Greek vase paintings helped determine this bias,
which is clearly seen in the outline illustrations made by the British
sculptor John Flaxman in the 1790s for editions of the works of Homer,
Aeschylus, and Dante. These illustrations are notable for their drastic and
powerful simplification of the human body, their denial of pictorial space,
and their minimal stage setting. This austere linearity when depicting the
human form was adopted by many other British figural artists, including
the Swiss-born Henry Fuseli and William Blake, among others.
Neoclassical painters attached great importance to depicting the
costumes, settings, and details of their classical subject matter with as
much historical accuracy as possible. This worked well enough when
illustrating an incident found in the pages of Homer, but it raised the
question of whether a modern hero or famous person should be
portrayed in classical or contemporary dress. This issue was never
satisfactorily resolved, except perhaps in David's brilliantly evocative
portraits of sitters wearing the then-fashionable antique garb, as in his
"Portrait of Madame Récamier" (1800; Louvre).
Classical history and mythology provided a large part of the subject
matter of Neoclassical works. The poetry of Homer, Virgil, and Ovid,
the plays of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, and history recorded
by Pliny, Plutarch, Tacitus, and Livy provided the bulk of classical
sources, but the most important single source was Homer. To this general
literary emphasis was added a growing interest in medieval sources, such
as the pseudo-Celtic poetry of Ossian, as well as incidents from medieval
history, the works of Dante, and an admiration for medieval art itself in
the persons of Giotto, Fra Angelico, and others. Indeed, the
Neoclassicists differed strikingly from their academic predecessors in
their admiration of Gothic and Quattrocento art in general, and they
contributed notably to the positive reevaluation of such art. (see also
Index: classical literature)
Finally, it should be noted that Neoclassicism coexisted throughout much
of its later development with the seemingly obverse and opposite
tendency of Romanticism. But far from being distinct and separate, these
two styles intermingled with each other in complex ways; many ostensibly
Neoclassical paintings show Romantic tendencies, and vice versa. This
contradictory situation is strikingly evident in the works of the last great
Neoclassical painter, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, who painted
sensuous Romantic female nudes while also turning out precisely linear
and rather lifeless historical paintings in the approved Neoclassical mode
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Paris is the capital city of France. Situated 着千套汽掉烧乙酒房缩推on the banks of the river Seine in north-centra他企沉移治烈l France. The C听胡字爱盟思ity of Paris is one of th非眼实历住船总都e most populate担派料d metropolitan areas in E协鱼液施断浓宁数且urope.
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Paris is the capital city of France.
It is situated on the River Seine, in northern France, at the heart of the Île-de-France region ("Région parisienne"). Paris has an estimated population of 2,153,600 within city limit (2005 est.).[2] The Paris urban area has a population of 9.93 million [3] and a commuter belt around the same completes the Paris "aire urbaine" (roughly: "metropolitan area") that, with its population of 12 million,[4] is one of the most populated areas of its kind in Europe.[5] An important settlement for more than two millennia, Paris is today one of the world's leading business and cultural centres, and its influence in politics, education, entertainment, media, fashion and the arts all contribute to its status as one of the major global cities.
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巴黎是法国首都。坐落于银行的塞纳河在东北法国中部。巴黎市是人口最多的大都会地区在欧洲。
这座城市，这是著名的界定新古典主义建筑，东道主许多博物馆和美术馆，并有一个活跃的夜生活。最显眼的象征巴黎是324米的艾菲尔铁塔上的塞纳河。绰号为“城市光辉”自十九世纪以来，巴黎被誉为“浪漫”的城市。这是访问量最高的城市在世界上，超过30万人次每人次
巴黎是法国首都。
它坐落在塞纳河，在法国北部的核心，法兰西岛地区（ “区域巴黎” ） 。巴黎估计有215.36万人口的城市限额内（ 2005年估计） 。 [ 2 ]巴黎市区人口为9930000 [ 3 ]和通勤带大约在同一完成了巴黎“艾尔urbaine ” （约： “首都圈“ ）说，其人口为12亿美元， [ 4 ]是一种最人口稠密地区的同类欧洲。 [ 5 ]一个重要的解决超过两千年，巴黎今天是一个世界领先的商业和文化中心，其影响力，在政治，教育，娱乐，媒体，时尚和艺术都有助于其作为一个主要的全球城市。
