世界现代设计史(
中文名称：生态设计 英文名称：ecological design 定义：指按生态学原理进行的人工生态系移注千里等握出统的结构、功能、代谢过程和产品及其工艺流程改财木妒沿的系统设计。生态设计遵从本地化、节约化、自然化、进化式、人人参与和天人合一等原则，强调减量化、再利用和再循环。 应用学科：生态学（一级学科）；城市生态学、生态工程学和产业生态学（二级学科）
启蒙运动（法文：Sièc鲜教表味le des Lumière望为执看好留殖s，英文：the Enl盾ightenment），通常是指在18世纪初至1789年法国大革命间的一个新思维不断涌现的时代，与理性主义等一起构成一个较长的文化运动时期。这个时期的启蒙运动，覆盖了各个知识领域，如自然科学、哲连面学、伦理学、政治学、经济学、历史学、文学、教育学等等。格氧罪细亚启蒙运动同时为美国独九菜义照首轮花千晚立战争与法国大革命提供了框架，并且导致了资本主义和社会主义的兴起，与音乐史上的巴洛克时期以及艺术史上的新古典主义时期是同一时期。
解构主义60年代缘起于法国，雅克·德里达——解构主义领袖——不满于西方几千年来贯穿至今的哲学思想审生春，对那种传统的不容置疑的哲学信念发起挑战，对自柏拉图动前长油取以来的西方形而上学传统大加责难。
俄国构成主义（The Russian Constructi衣空陆丰冷哥飞尼脚夜组vism）： 又名结构主义；发展于1913~20年代。构成主义是指由一块块金属社居煤读如去随步虽赵刘、玻璃、木块、纸板或塑料组构结周积家办田合成的雕塑。强调的是空间中的势(movement)，而不是传统雕塑着重的体积量感。构成主义接受了立体派的拼裱和浮雕技法，由传统雕塑的加和减，变成组构和结合；同时也吸收了绝对主义的几何抽象命接理念，甚至运用到悬染挂物和浮雕构成物，对现代雕塑激绍兴财思音抓时商府有决定性影响。
德意志制造：“现代主义的原型、便利生活的创造者”，这是对有着悠久江帮或田染秋斤晶三美紧设计历史和优良工艺传统的“德意志制造”的经典概括。姑且不论菜卡、西门子、大众、博世、博朗、阿迪达斯这些耳熟能详的品牌，即使一支铅笔、一把餐勺、一提菜篮，也都彰显着其细腻的心思、独到的创意与恒久的品质。《德意志制造》一书秉承了“Made in Germany”的精神，融设计、建筑、旅行、生活予一身，用“艺术、理性、感性、居家、建筑”五个主题词把德意志的设计之美、工艺之精、建筑格调传达得妙肖毕至。耳濡目染间，不单能会味其设计制造的成功之道，更能深悉品质生活的精髓所在。
包豪斯（Bauhaus,/1—/7），是德国魏玛市的 “公立包豪斯学校”（Staatliches Bauhaus)的简称，后改称“设计学院”（Hochschule für Gestaltung），习惯上仍沿称“包豪斯”。在两德统一后位于魏玛的设计学院更名为魏玛包豪斯大学（Bauhaus-Universität Weimar)。她的成立标志着现代设计的诞生，对世界现代设计的发展产生了深远的影响，包豪斯也是世界上第一所完全为发展现代设计教育而建立的学院。“包豪斯”一词是格罗披乌斯生造出来的，是德语Bauhaus的译音，由德语Hausbau（房屋建筑）一词倒置而成。
求~“新古典主义”~美术方面的 英文介绍 急用 2天内~
NEOCLASSICISM
Neoclassicism was a widespread and influential movement in painting and
the other visual arts that began in the 1760s, reached its height in the
1780s and '90s, and lasted until the 1840s and '50s. In painting it
generally took the form of an emphasis on austere linear design in the
depiction of classical themes and subject matter, using archaeologically
correct settings and costumes.
Neoclassicism arose partly as a reaction against the sensuous and
frivolously decorative Rococo style that had dominated European art
from the 1720s on. But an even more profound stimulus was the new and
more scientific interest in classical antiquity that arose in the 18th century.
Neoclassicism was given great impetus by new archaeological
discoveries, particularly the exploration and excavation of the buried
Roman cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii (the excavations of which
began in 1738 and 1748, respectively). And from the second decade of
the 18th century on, a number of influential publications by Bernard de
Montfaucon, Giovanni Battista Piranesi, the Comte de Caylus, and
Robert Wood provided engraved views of Roman monuments and other
antiquities and further quickened interest in the classical past. The new
understanding distilled from these discoveries and publications in turn
enabled European scholars for the first time to discern separate and
distinct chronological periods in Greco-Roman art, and this new sense of
a plurality of ancient styles replaced the older, unqualified veneration of
Roman art and encouraged a dawning interest in purely Greek antiquities.
The German scholar Johann Joachim Winckelmann's writings and
sophisticated theorizings were especially influential in this regard.
Winckelmann saw in Greek sculpture "a noble simplicity and quiet
grandeur" and called for artists to imitate Greek art. He claimed that in
doing so such artists would obtain idealized depictions of natural forms
that had been stripped of all transitory and individualistic aspects, and
their images would thus attain a universal and archetypal significance.
Neoclassicism as manifested in painting was initially not stylistically
distinct from the French Rococo and other styles that had preceded it.
This was partly because, whereas it was possible for architecture and
sculpture to be modeled on prototypes in these media that had actually
survived from classical antiquity, those few classical paintings that had
survived were minor or merely ornamental works–until, that is, the
discoveries made at Herculaneum and Pompeii. The earliest Neoclassical
painters were Joseph-Marie Vien, Anton Raphael Mengs, Pompeo
Batoni, Angelica Kauffmann, and Gavin Hamilton; these artists were
active during the 1750s, '60s, and '70s. Each of these painters, though
they may have used poses and figural arrangements from ancient
sculptures and vase paintings, was strongly influenced by preceding
stylistic trends. An important early Neoclassical work such as Mengs's
"Parnassus" (1761; Villa Albani, Rome) owes much of its inspiration to
17th-century classicism and to Raphael for both the poses of its figures
and its general composition. Many of the early paintings of the
Neoclassical artist Benjamin West derive their compositions from works
by Nicolas Poussin, and Kauffmann's sentimental subjects dressed in
antique garb are basically Rococo in their softened, decorative prettiness.
Mengs's close association with Winckelmann led to his being influenced
by the ideal beauty that the latter so ardently expounded, but the church
and palace ceilings decorated by Mengs owe more to existing Italian
Baroque traditions than to anything Greek or Roman.
"Oath of the Horatii," oil
painting by
Jacques-Louis David,
1784; in the Louvre, Paris
/Art Resource, NY
"The Death of Marat,"
oil painting by
Jacques-Louis David,
1793; in the Musées
Royaux des. . .
/Art Resource, NY
A more rigorously Neoclassical painting style arose in France in the
1780s under the leadership of Jacques-Louis David. He and his
contemporary Jean-François-Pierre Peyron were interested in narrative
painting rather than the ideal grace that fascinated Mengs. Just before and
during the French Revolution, these and other painters adopted stirring
moral subject matter from Roman history and celebrated the values of
simplicity, austerity, heroism, and stoic virtue that were traditionally
associated with the Roman Republic, thus drawing parallels between that
time and the contemporary struggle for liberty in France. David's history
paintings of the "Oath of the Horatii" (1784; Louvre, Paris [see
photograph]) and "Lictors Bringing to Brutus the Bodies of His Sons"
(1789; Louvre) display a gravity and decorum deriving from classical
tragedy, a certain rhetorical quality of gesture, and patterns of drapery
influenced by ancient sculpture. To some extent these elements were
anticipated by British and American artists such as Hamilton and West,
but in David's works the dramatic confrontations of the figures are
starker and in clearer profile on the same plane, the setting is more
monumental, and the diagonal compositional movements, large groupings
of figures, and turbulent draperies of the Baroque have been almost
entirely repudiated (see photograph). This style was ruthlessly austere
and uncompromising, and it is not surprising that it came to be associated
with the French Revolution (in which David actively participated).
Neoclassicism as generally manifested in European painting by the 1790s
emphasized the qualities of outline and linear design over those of colour,
atmosphere, and effects of light. Widely disseminated engravings of
classical sculptures and Greek vase paintings helped determine this bias,
which is clearly seen in the outline illustrations made by the British
sculptor John Flaxman in the 1790s for editions of the works of Homer,
Aeschylus, and Dante. These illustrations are notable for their drastic and
powerful simplification of the human body, their denial of pictorial space,
and their minimal stage setting. This austere linearity when depicting the
human form was adopted by many other British figural artists, including
the Swiss-born Henry Fuseli and William Blake, among others.
Neoclassical painters attached great importance to depicting the
costumes, settings, and details of their classical subject matter with as
much historical accuracy as possible. This worked well enough when
illustrating an incident found in the pages of Homer, but it raised the
question of whether a modern hero or famous person should be
portrayed in classical or contemporary dress. This issue was never
satisfactorily resolved, except perhaps in David's brilliantly evocative
portraits of sitters wearing the then-fashionable antique garb, as in his
"Portrait of Madame Récamier" (1800; Louvre).
Classical history and mythology provided a large part of the subject
matter of Neoclassical works. The poetry of Homer, Virgil, and Ovid,
the plays of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, and history recorded
by Pliny, Plutarch, Tacitus, and Livy provided the bulk of classical
sources, but the most important single source was Homer. To this general
literary emphasis was added a growing interest in medieval sources, such
as the pseudo-Celtic poetry of Ossian, as well as incidents from medieval
history, the works of Dante, and an admiration for medieval art itself in
the persons of Giotto, Fra Angelico, and others. Indeed, the
Neoclassicists differed strikingly from their academic predecessors in
their admiration of Gothic and Quattrocento art in general, and they
contributed notably to the positive reevaluation of such art. (see also
Index: classical literature)
Finally, it should be noted that Neoclassicism coexisted throughout much
of its later development with the seemingly obverse and opposite
tendency of Romanticism. But far from being distinct and separate, these
two styles intermingled with each other in complex ways; many ostensibly
Neoclassical paintings show Romantic tendencies, and vice versa. This
contradictory situation is strikingly evident in the works of the last great
Neoclassical painter, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, who painted
sensuous Romantic female nudes while also turning out precisely linear
and rather lifeless historical paintings in the approved Neoclassical mode
希望能帮到你
用英语回答什么是新古典主义
Neoclassicism is the name given to quite distinct movements in the decorative and visual arts, literature, theatre, music, and architecture that draw upon Western classical art and culture (usually that of Ancient Greece or Ancient Rome). These movements were dominant during the mid 18th to the end of the 19th century
新古典主义是一种新的复古运动。兴起于18世纪的罗马，并迅速在欧美地区扩展的艺术运动，影响了装饰艺术、建筑、绘画、文学、戏剧和音乐等（主要是古希腊和古罗马文化）。 这些运动在十八世纪中期到十九世纪结束占据了统治地位。
