英国的人文环境
个性化与类型化——试析18世纪英国小说中的360问答人物及其塑造手法***//2/16160153
18世纪英国哲学的发展
在洛克的唯物主义经验论之后,英国哲学领域中虽有人坚持和发展唯物论,但更多的是转向唯心论。
约翰·托兰德(1670—17超发22)是英国唯物主义哲学家。他主张物体不仅具有广延性,而且具有内在能动性,认为运动是物质固有的属性并具有多种运动形式。民反针利厂他发展了自然神论的思想,否认基督教的传统教义及神创造世界的观念,提倡自由思考和讨论,推崇理性。马克思曾指出:“自然神论——至少对唯物主义者来说——不过是摆脱宗教的一种简便易行的方法罢了。”①托兰德的主要著述有《基督教并轮显念头么赶策路不神秘》和《给塞烈娜的信》等。18世评经国记很成值准纪后期,普里斯特利(1733—1800)又地互饭波万掉发展了英国的唯物主义,肯定了物质实体的积极能动性,认为大脑是思想的自然所在。他还进一步提出:“自然界,包括自然界的一切物质和自然规律,将会越来越服从于人的意志。”①
在唯心主义哲学中,18世纪英国出现了托马斯磁精死营刻话否·瑞德(1710—1796)为代表的二元论的“苏格兰学派”(亦称常识哲学),其中最著名的是乔治·贝克莱主教和大卫·休谟。贝克莱(168命任不载既孔5—1753)作为西欧近代哲学史上主观唯心主义经验论的创始者,将洛克的经验主义由唯物论转向唯心论,成为“英国哲学中神秘唯心主义的代表”。②他提出了著名的主观唯心主义的哲学命题——存在就是被感知。他完全否定客观物质存在,把外界事物看成“观念”(即感觉)的复合,而一切观念的根据是“无限心灵”,即上帝。贝克莱用自己的哲学思想反对无神论,维护神学。正如他自己所言:“在我们的研究中应占首要位夫宪仍置的,乃是对于上帝和我们的天职的研究。”③他散营买汉穿扬肉型的主要著作有《视觉新论》、《人类知识原理》和《希勒斯与斐勒斯的三篇对话》等。
出身没落贵族的大卫·休谟兴趣广泛,不仅对哲学,而且对历史、经济、宗教和政治学均有研究和著缺效处停吗带京述。他是西欧近代哲学史上第解源使视轻落凯很副一个不可知论者,同贝克莱一样主张知识来源于经验,但他认为经验由包括印象和观念的知觉所组成,而知觉之外是不可知的领域,即除了知觉,一切皆不可知。在他看来,日月星辰、山川河流、宇宙万物都不过是大只督乡束热一束知觉之流,而每一知觉又是特殊的和互不关联的。至于知觉如何获得,知觉之外是否有客观实体存在,他认为这是人们不可能知道的。他说道:“除了对知觉而外,我们对频志只边应机任何事物都没有一个完善的观念……当人们问:知觉是寓存于一个物质的实体中,还是寓存于一个非物质的(精阿觉季求附势神的)实体中时,我们甚至不懂得这个问题的含义,那么如何还能加以答复?”①休谟完全否认了客观物质存在是产生知觉的根源,否认了知觉同外在事物的联系。另一方面,休谟完粉害么台巴液独宜的不可知论与贝克莱的哲学不同,实际上是一种非宗教的哲学思想形式。恩格斯指出这种不可知论实际上否认了神的存在。②休谟的不可知论对后来西方近露振钢吃汉鸡土呢套界现代哲学中的各种唯心主义流派颇具影响。他的主要著作有《人性论》、《人类理解研究》、《道德原理研究》等。
休谟和贝克莱在政治上都主张对现存政权的顺从,反对英国资产阶级革命使用过的思想武器,如社会契约论等。他们的哲学也是英国大资产阶级在确立其统治后转向保守在理论上的反映。
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英国18世纪文学
18世纪前半叶,英国社会安定,文学上崇尚新古典主义,其代表者是诗人蒲柏。他运用英雄偶句体极为纯熟,擅长写讽刺诗,但以发泄私怨居多。表现出启蒙主义精神的主要是散文作家,他们推进了散文艺术,还开拓了两个文学新领域,即期刊随笔和现实主义小说。
期刊文学是应广大读者的要求而兴起。斯梯尔与艾迪生两人有首创之功。前者创办《闲谈者》报(1709~1711) ,后者继出《旁观者》报(1711~1712),将街谈巷议和俱乐部里的风趣幽默写上了期刊。艾迪生的文笔尤见典雅。后来笛福、斯威夫特、菲尔丁、约翰逊、哥尔德斯密斯等名家都曾主编期刊或为期刊撰稿,可见此风之盛。由于他们的努力,英国式的随笔得到进一步的提高,题材更广泛,文笔也更灵活。
更具英国特色而又对欧洲大陆产生重大影响的则是散文小说。笛福的《鲁滨孙飘流记》(1719)、《摩尔·弗兰德斯》(1722)等书把水手和女仆当做英雄人物来介绍,细节写得十分逼真,虽然书的结构松散,作者却有娓娓动听的说故事的本领,使读者始终保持兴趣。他的文字口语化,善于绘声绘形,而又迅捷有力。这些特点,加上笛福对英国城乡诸色人等的深刻了解,使他奠定了英国现实主义小说的基础。斯威夫特的《格利佛游记》(1726)是以讽刺朝政、表现人类的丑恶为目的的寓言,然而作为故事,也是十分引人入胜。他把现实细节放在十分奇特的幻想的情景之中,而幻想也是正在发展中的英国小说所需要的。世纪中叶,理查逊用书信体小说细致地描写遭遇不幸的少女的内心,以《克拉丽莎》(1747~1748)等大部头小说感动了一整代英国和西欧的读者,法国启蒙思想家狄德罗称之为伟大创造力的表现。但在菲尔丁的眼里,理查逊只是市侩哲学的代表,于是他起而用仿作去讽刺之,其结果却掌握了写小说的艺术,于是有了他自己的创作,其中最受称道的是《弃婴托姆·琼斯的故事》(1749),它的人物、风景、场面都是典型的英国式的。作者歌颂真诚、热心、忠实而又不受传统束缚的青年男女,全书有一种爽朗、清新的空气,而又结构完整,把现实主义小说推进到了一个新的水平。当时及稍后还有斯摩莱特、哥尔德斯密斯、斯特恩等人的小说,或扩充了题材,或实验了新写法,都有建树,因此虽然世纪末出现了渲染神秘恐怖的“哥特小说”,但是现实主义已经成为英国小说中的主流,继续向前发展。
笛福—英文简介
Good MoringWang XinjuanAdventure Fiction Writer冒险小说家Daniel Defoe丹尼尔局衡友·笛福Daniel Defoe(1660—1731)In Neoclassical Period新古典主义时期Rich Vs.Poor• ExperiencesWk• Social position• Works• Contributions• Economy positionLife Experiences(main things)•拦卖 1660 born in London (son of a butcher屠桐槐夫 ) he received a good education in one of the best Dissenting school, but he gave up the idea of becoming a preacher(说教者) .• 1678-1683 traveled in Spain, Italy, France and German as a merchant(商人 ) .• 1688 joined William’s army and took great interest in the establishment(企业) of the new government.• 1692 he became bankrupt, within 4years, he was doing well as the manager of the tile(瓷砖) factory.• 1701, The Trueborn Englishman –A Satire(讽刺文学 )• 1703 he was arrested and pilloried(处以枷刑)• 1704 he found The Reviewand carried it to 1713• 1719 published Robinson Crusoe• 1731 diedLife Experiences(main things)gBrief Introduction• A jack-of-all-trades: soldier, merchant, economist, politician, publicist, writer, as well as novelist.• A journalist and a pamphleteer(小册子作者)with a reporter’s eye for the picturesque(别致的) and a newspaperman’s instinct for “making a good story”• A radical nonconformist(不信奉英国国教的新教教徒 ) in religionhis puritan zeal(纯粹主义者热情) for reform marks all this work account for the moralizing to be found everywhere.• Defoe was once in prison, and his prison experience, together with the further knowledge of criminals accounts for his stories of thieves and pirates.Defoe’s NovelsDefoe started the writing of novels when he was nearly sixty years of age.It was the novel that built his reputation(声誉) as a world-known writer.His novels include:His novels include:• The Life and Strange Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe (1 71 9) 《鲁宾逊漂流记》the first and most famous novelthe book which makes him immortalFather of English NovelDefoe gained enduring fame for this novelThe brief introduction of The Life and Strange Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe• Robinson Crusoe, the narrator of the story, tells us that he was born in 1 632 in the city of York, England. 1 9 there is sailing from Robinson in the dream, regardless of their parents, he embarked on a journey of sailing. Unfortunately, once again, he was in the sea waves to a desert island, a man of the island started his career. With lflifthonly a few supplies from the ship he builds a house, a boat and a new life. His island is not wholly uninhabited(无人居住的) , though, and there is the exciting but ominous(不祥的) presence of cannibals(食人族) who Crusoe occasionally encounters(不期而遇) and saves a native from. The latter becomes his servant, Man Friday. The crew of a mutinying(叛变的) ship finally rescue our hero, but it is his adventure on the island that interests us. hihb ildhThe pictures of Robinson Crusoe in different kinds of publicationsThe pictures of Robinson Crusoe in different kinds of publicationsThe pictures of Robinson Crusoe in different kinds of publicationsThe pictures of the filmModern people travel to the island of Robinson’sOther novels followed in quick succession:• Captain Singleton (1 720) 《辛格顿船长》• Journal of the Plague Year (1 722)《大疫年日记》• Captain Jack (1 722)《杰克船长》• Moll Flanders (1 722)《摩尔 弗兰德》• Roxana (1 724) 《罗克珊娜》• Ideas: the Enlightenment is a value systemEnlighteners believed that freedom, democracyand reason are the primary values of society.They also strongly believed in science.• Representatives:Alexander Pope亚历山大·蒲柏Samuel Jonson塞缪尔·约翰逊Daniel Defoe 丹尼尔·笛福Enlightenment—— a social value system• Time: the middle of the 1 7th century to the 1 8th century, beginning in France and then spread throughout Europe.• Definition: an expression of struggle of the progressive class of bourgeois against feudali *** (先进的资产阶级反抗封建主义的一种表达)Other Works Non-fiction:• The Storm (1 704) • A General History of the Pirate(1 724)Defoe‘s authorship of this pseudonymousDefoes authorship of this pseudonymous (匿名的) work is disputed .• A Tour through the whole island of Great Britain, divided into circuits or journeys (1 724–1 727) Essays :• Conjugal Lewdness• Serious Reflections of Robinson Crusoe(1 720)• The Complete English Trade *** anp• An Essay Upon Projects(1 697) 《论开发》first book he published• An Essay Upon Literature(1 726)• Mere Nature Delineated(1 726)• A Plan of English Commerce(1 728)gWriting Features• Language is *** ooth, easy, colloquial(口语的) and mostly vernacular(白话的、 方言的) — common English.• One of the first to write stories about believable characters in realistic situations using simple prose.Defoe glorifies(美化) human laborand the puritan• Defoe glorifies(美化) human laborand the puritan fortitude(清教徒刚毅精神) . It refers the enterprising(有进取心的) spirit of the middle class.• Organizing minute details in a vivid way that his stories could be both credible and fascinating.• Sentences are sometimes short, crisp, and plain, and sometimes long and rambling(闲聊的) , which leave on the reader an impression of casual narration.The Review(1704 – 1713)A political and literary magazine started by Defoestarted by Defoe.这是英国的第一份定期出版的文化和政治刊物,是英国报业的先驱。Memorial to Daniel DefoeBunhill FieldsCity Road,City Road,LondonThanks for your attention