求~“新古典主义”~美术方面的英文介绍急用2天内~
NEOCLASSICISM
Neoclassicism was a w来自idespread and influential movement in painting and
the other visual arts that began in the 1760s, reached its height in the
1780s and ’90s, and 增效减磁除切我lasted until the 次国胞末顾状待立布送设1840s and ’50s. In painting it
generally took the form of an emphasis on austere linear design in the
depiction of classical themes and subject matter, using archaeologically
correct sett分明期念ings and costumes.
Neoclass危团进金端房格序农icism arose partly as a reaction against the sens360问答uous and
frivolously decorative Ro态连苦难coco style that had dominated European a尼然破rt
from the 1720兴蒸破底细际导原聚s on. But an even more profound stimulus was the new and
more scientific interest in classical antiquity that arose in the 18th century.
Neoclassicism was given great impetus by new archaeological
discoveries, particularly the exploration and excavation of the buried
Roman citie每盾作s of Hercula承鸡某罗水动渐包neum and Pompeii (the excavations of which
began in 1738 and 1748, respectively). And from the second deca零终de of
the 18th century on, a number of influential publications by Bernard de
M额映良钢ontfaucon, Giovanni Battista Pi略ranesi, the Co省花先另岁非气刑mte de Caylus, and
Robert Wood provided engraved views of Rom沿治息女医头停an monuments and o探因留十ther
antiq搞组背保景铁洋损陆处背uities and further quickened interest in the classical past. The new
understanding distilled from these discoveries and publications in turn
enabled European scholars for the first time to discern separate and
di罪帮stinct chronological periods in Greco-阿丰务围抗车定课越值Roman art, and this new sense of
a plurality of ancient styles replaced the older, unqualified veneration of
Roman art and encouraged a dawning interest in purely Greek antiquities.
The German scholar Johann Joachim Winckelmann’s writings and
sophisticated theorizings were especially influential in this regard.
Winckelmann saw in Greek sculpture “a noble simplicity and quiet
grandeur” and called for artists to imitate Greek art. He claimed that in
doing so such artists would obtain idealized depictions of natural forms
that had been stripped of all transitory and individualistic aspects, and
their images would thus attain a universal and archetypal significance.
Neoclassicism as manifested in painting was initially not stylistically
distinct from the French Rococo and other styles that had preceded it.
This was partly because, whereas it was possible for architecture and
sculpture to be modeled on prototypes in these media that had actually
survived from classical antiquity, those few classical paintings that had
survived were minor or merely ornamental works–until, that is, the
discoveries made at Herculaneum and Pompeii. The earliest Neoclassical
painters were Joseph-Marie Vien, Anton Raphael Mengs, Pompeo
Batoni, Angelica Kauffmann, and Gavin Hamilton; these artists were
active during the 1750s, ’60s, and ’70s. Each of these painters, though
they may have used poses and figural arrangements from ancient
sculptures and vase paintings, was strongly influenced by preceding
stylistic trends. An important early Neoclassical work such as Mengs’s
“Parnassus” (1761; Villa Albani, Rome) owes much of its inspiration to
17th-century classicism and to Raphael for both the poses of its figures
and its general composition. Many of the early paintings of the
Neoclassical artist Benjamin West derive their compositions from works
by Nicolas Poussin, and Kauffmann’s sentimental subjects dressed in
antique garb are basically Rococo in their softened, decorative prettiness.
Mengs’s close association with Winckelmann led to his being influenced
by the ideal beauty that the latter so ardently expounded, but the church
and palace ceilings decorated by Mengs owe more to existing Italian
Baroque traditions than to anything Greek or Roman.
“Oath of the Horatii,” oil
painting by
Jacques-Louis David,
1784; in the Louvre, Paris
/Art Resource, NY
“The Death of Marat,”
oil painting by
Jacques-Louis David,
1793; in the Musées
Royaux des. . .
/Art Resource, NY
A more rigorously Neoclassical painting style arose in France in the
1780s under the leadership of Jacques-Louis David. He and his
contemporary Jean-François-Pierre Peyron were interested in narrative
painting rather than the ideal grace that fascinated Mengs. Just before and
during the French Revolution, these and other painters adopted stirring
moral subject matter from Roman history and celebrated the values of
simplicity, austerity, heroism, and stoic virtue that were traditionally
associated with the Roman Republic, thus drawing parallels between that
time and the contemporary struggle for liberty in France. David’s history
paintings of the “Oath of the Horatii” (1784; Louvre, Paris [see
photograph]) and “Lictors Bringing to Brutus the Bodies of His Sons”
(1789; Louvre) display a gravity and decorum deriving from classical
tragedy, a certain rhetorical quality of gesture, and patterns of drapery
influenced by ancient sculpture. To some extent these elements were
anticipated by British and American artists such as Hamilton and West,
but in David’s works the dramatic confrontations of the figures are
starker and in clearer profile on the same plane, the setting is more
monumental, and the diagonal compositional movements, large groupings
of figures, and turbulent draperies of the Baroque have been almost
entirely repudiated (see photograph). This style was ruthlessly austere
and uncompromising, and it is not surprising that it came to be associated
with the French Revolution (in which David actively participated).
Neoclassicism as generally manifested in European painting by the 1790s
emphasized the qualities of outline and linear design over those of colour,
atmosphere, and effects of light. Widely disseminated engravings of
classical sculptures and Greek vase paintings helped determine this bias,
which is clearly seen in the outline illustrations made by the British
sculptor John Flaxman in the 1790s for editions of the works of Homer,
Aeschylus, and Dante. These illustrations are notable for their drastic and
powerful simplification of the human body, their denial of pictorial space,
and their minimal stage setting. This austere linearity when depicting the
human form was adopted by many other British figural artists, including
the Swiss-born Henry Fuseli and William Blake, among others.
Neoclassical painters attached great importance to depicting the
costumes, settings, and details of their classical subject matter with as
much historical accuracy as possible. This worked well enough when
illustrating an incident found in the pages of Homer, but it raised the
question of whether a modern hero or famous person should be
portrayed in classical or contemporary dress. This issue was never
satisfactorily resolved, except perhaps in David’s brilliantly evocative
portraits of sitters wearing the then-fashionable antique garb, as in his
“Portrait of Madame Récamier” (1800; Louvre).
Classical history and mythology provided a large part of the subject
matter of Neoclassical works. The poetry of Homer, Virgil, and Ovid,
the plays of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, and history recorded
by Pliny, Plutarch, Tacitus, and Livy provided the bulk of classical
sources, but the most important single source was Homer. To this general
literary emphasis was added a growing interest in medieval sources, such
as the pseudo-Celtic poetry of Ossian, as well as incidents from medieval
history, the works of Dante, and an admiration for medieval art itself in
the persons of Giotto, Fra Angelico, and others. Indeed, the
Neoclassicists differed strikingly from their academic predecessors in
their admiration of Gothic and Quattrocento art in general, and they
contributed notably to the positive reevaluation of such art. (see also
Index: classical literature)
Finally, it should be noted that Neoclassicism coexisted throughout much
of its later development with the seemingly obverse and opposite
tendency of Romanticism. But far from being distinct and separate, these
two styles intermingled with each other in complex ways; many ostensibly
Neoclassical paintings show Romantic tendencies, and vice versa. This
contradictory situation is strikingly evident in the works of the last great
Neoclassical painter, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, who painted
sensuous Romantic female nudes while also turning out precisely linear
and rather lifeless historical paintings in the approved Neoclassical mode
希望能帮到你
谁能帮我解释一下英美文学中的新古典主义，浪漫主义
“新古典主义”
所谓新古典主义的主要风格在于:在力求正确理解古代文化和历史的前提下，用最现代的技法来处理故事情节及结构，强调节奏和速度。大量使用现代语言，准确而有限地使用文言和古典语汇，力求使现代人在感情和心理上无隔膜地切入古代社会。
“浪漫主义”(Romantic)
古典主义与浪漫主义不大的差别在于它们所强调的方面，那是属于内容与形式的关系的问题，浪漫的艺术家将情感的表现置于一切之上，因此，浪漫的艺术中，情感常与形式的规则相对抗;另一方面，古典的艺术家，则寻求形式与内容之间的 理想的平衡，他将情感的力量控制载他的艺术后面，努力协调情和理的要求，因此，和声获得均衡、平静和古典艺术的有控制的品质。
古典的性情，在古希腊达到它的黄金时代，而且成为两千年后文艺复兴的灵感源泉。其实，古典和浪漫始终是交替存在或并存着，因为它们调宴型配着人的天性中的两种基本冲动:一方面，对于传统规范的热爱，需要有情感的净化和控制;另一方面，对于陶醉和狂喜的愿望，使他充满对于未知的渴望。古典并不是没有情感的形式，浪漫也不是没有形式的感情。情感与形式是不可分的。关键在于它们的强调点。
法国革命是极重要的契机，权利从封建贵族手中转移到新兴的中产阶级，大革命强调个性、政治自由、经济自由、宗教自由、个性自由。而在艺术家那里，这种个人主义的冲动，激发了浪漫主义的表现。
浪漫时期大师:
门德尔松(1809-1847) 、舒伯特 Frantz Peter Schubert(1797-1828)、
舒曼 Robert Alexander Schumann(1810-1856) 、柏辽兹、肖邦 Frederic Francois Chopin(1810-1849)、李斯特 Franz Liszt (1811-1886)、瓦格纳、
威尔第、普契尼、勃拉姆斯 Johannes Brahms(1833-1897)、
柴科夫斯基 Pyotr Ilyich Tchailovsky(1810-1856) 、马勒 、斯特劳斯
比才 (1838-1875) 、斯美塔纳 、西贝柳斯 、拉赫玛尼诺夫 、穆索尔斯基
“现实主义”
现实主义表示二分明套哲学理论,一个关于普遍概念的本质和另一应付对象知识在世界上。
在后-古典和中世纪哲学方面,现实主义是形式的帕拉图式的理论的发展 和举行,一般,普遍性譬如"红色"或"人"有独立,客观存在,或在他们自己领土 或在上帝的头脑。中世纪现实主义与Nominalism通常被对比,并且现实主义经典批评从这个观点由彼得·Abelard和威廉提供了Occam 。
在现代哲学方面现实主义是一个宽广的期限,包含团结在哲学、理想、主义的共同的拒绝的几运动。以它的最一般的形世凳式现实主义断言,对象在外在世界独立地存在什么，考虑他们。最直接的这样理论通常为人所知作为天真现实主义。它主张那在悟人直接地使明白对象和他们的属性和因而得以进入对外在世界的直接。这个看法失败,然而,解释感知差错和幻觉,和多数现实主义者争辩说,原因过程在头脑里斡旋,或解释,直接地被察觉的出现。因而对象实质 上依然是独立,虽然原因机制也许变形,甚至完全弄虚,个体的知识他们。
“现代主义”
“现代主义”这个术语常常被用来谈论19世纪末到20世纪的文学艺术。它标明了一种不同于以往任何时期的文学精神气质或“现代的感受性”，是象征主义、未来主义、意象主义、表现主义、意识流、超现实主义等诸种流派的总称。与许多文论术语的演变相似，最早的“现代主义”也是一个带有批评和嘲讽意味的贬义词。根据卡林内斯库的研究，1755年，塞缪尔·约翰逊把现代主义作为斯威夫特创造的新词收入《英语语言词典》里。斯威夫特在致蒲柏的一封信中说:“蹩脚文人以拙劣的减省和古怪的现代主义，带给我们这些用散文和诗写成的垃圾。”到19世纪末，这个词的使用从贬义转向中性化，在20世纪20年代之后被广泛接受并获得了合法性。鲁文·达里奥是把“现代主义”作为褒义词使搜祥旅用并用以指称现代美学革命的第一人，早在1888年，他就用“表现手法彻底现代主义”来赞扬墨西哥作家卡里多·贡特雷拉斯。
在现代西方的文论与批评中，现代主义这个术语大致有五种用法:①一种美学倾向;②一种创作精神;③一场文学运动;④一个松散的流派的总称;⑤一种创作原则或创作方法。这些用法有各自的偏重，但共同之处均把现代主义的含义界定为现实主义的反动。正如彼得·福克纳所说:“现代主义是艺术摆脱19世纪诸种假定的历史进程的一部分，那些假定似乎随着时光移易已经变为僵死的常规了。”
1)德拉克罗瓦:作品有:《加利列海》、《自由领导人民前进》、《希奥岛的屠杀》等。
2)米勒:作品:《拾穗》、《播种者》等。
3)马奈:作品:《露台》、《草地上的午餐》、《吹笛子的少年》等。
4)德加:作品:《熨衣妇》、《赛马场上的马车》、《舞台》等。
5)罗丹:作品有《吻》等。
“后现代主义”
“后现代”一词最早曾在19世纪70年代使用。后现代思潮的真正兴起是在本世纪60年代以后，到70年代其影响已较广泛，80年代以来以法国为中心，后现代话语开始在全世界流通，主要代表人物有福柯(Michel Foucault)、利奥塔(J.F.Lyatard)等。后现代主义对囊括一切面面俱到的世界观提出了挑战，它的目标在于消除传统权威的合法性。后现代主义强调的是非决定论而不是决定论，是多样性而不是统一性，是差异性而不是综合性，是复杂而不是简单。它特别关注合法化危机和支配世界文化系统以现代计算机和传媒为特徵的这些方面，对基于共识，理性沟通行动和人类自由之上的理论和科学深表怀疑，试图寻求关于社会、语言和人类主体的新观念，它提供了一种新的认识视角，更新了传统的思维方式。
后现代主义者清醒地看到了人类目前所面临的核武器和环境这两个足以毁灭世界的难题。正是在追本溯源的过程中，他们发现，对于人类今日的不幸，现代性难辞其责。因此，挑战、批判现代性便成为后现代思想家的主要任务。正如格里芬(D.R.Griffin)所说:“我们可以，而且应该抛弃现代性，事实上我们必须这样做，否则，我们及地球上的大多数生命都将难以逃脱毁灭的命运。”在人与世界的关系上，后现代主义主张消除现代性所设置的人与世界之间的对立，因为如果我们把世界看作是与我们相分离的，是由一些计算操纵的，由互不相关的部分组成的，那么我们就会成为孤立的人，我们接人待物的动机也将是操纵与计算。
后现代主义对现代性的批判，源自于对工具理性及其恶果(极权统治、核恐怖和生态恶化)的批判。尽管现代性在后现代主义者眼里有种种劣行，然而，后现代主义却难以摆脱对现代性既爱又恨的关系。它要否定的不是现代性的存在，而是现代性的霸权，不是现代性的优点，而是现代性的局限。它欣赏现代性给人们带来的物质和精神方面的进步，同时对现代性的负面影响深恶痛绝。后现代主义提出的问题是:能否有效地汲取现代性的优点又有效地避免现代性的弊端?显然，问题的难度是不小的，因为这不仅关涉到现代性的命运，更关涉到人类社会的前途。
